The Legacy of Black Elk
Nicholas Black Elk was a famous Lakota (Sioux) Indian spiritual leader and medicine man who lived from 1863 to 1950. He was born into the Oglala Lakota tribe on the Great Plains of North America, in what is now South Dakota. Black Elk played a significant role in preserving and sharing indigenous wisdom and culture.
Black Elk is best known for his book "Black Elk Speaks,"[1] which was published in 1932. In this book, he recounted his life experiences, including his visions and spiritual journey. His writings provide valuable insights into Lakota spirituality, their understanding of the interconnectedness of all things, and their deep reverence for the natural world.
Black Elk's visions and spiritual journey were the foundation of his teachings and influenced his understanding of the world and his role within it. According to his account in "Black Elk Speaks," he had his first visionary experience when he was just nine years old. In this vision, he was taken to the spirit world and encountered the "Six Grandfathers" (spirits representing the sacred directions), who bestowed upon him spiritual gifts and guidance.
Throughout his life, Black Elk received several more visions and revelations, which he believed were messages from the divine. These visions often had themes of unity, connection, and the importance of living in harmony with all aspects of creation. His visions guided him in his spiritual practices and shaped his understanding of the human experience and the role of indigenous people.
One of Black Elk's most profound visions occurred during a time of personal crisis in his late teens. In this vision, known as the Great Vision, he saw a representation of the sacred hoop of his people being broken and the buffalo disappearing. This vision symbolized the decline and upheaval faced by many indigenous nations due to colonization and suggested the need for spiritual revival and cultural preservation.
Black Elk's vision also revealed to him the importance of the hoop of all nations coming together in unity, embracing their unique traditions, and supporting each other for the betterment of humanity. He believed that healing and balance could be achieved by restoring this unity and bringing harmony to the world.
As a young man, Black Elk participated in key historical events, such as the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876 and the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. These events had a profound impact on his understanding of the struggles and displacement faced by his people due to settler colonialism.
Throughout his life, Black Elk travelled widely, sharing his spiritual teachings and participating in ceremonies and rituals. Black Elk incorporated the teachings and symbolism from his visions into his role as a spiritual leader. He conducted ceremonies, shared his insights, and acted as a bridge between his people and the wider world, striving to maintain the spiritual and cultural connections that had been eroded by colonialism.
He promoted an understanding between his people and non-Native communities and his efforts contributed to both the preservation of Lakota traditions and preserving indigenous knowledge and culture.
Kȟuŋšiyetuŋpi tuŋšiyokšičiya opičiyapi
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[1] Black Elk Speaks - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Elk_Speaks
Unravelling Blood Quantum: Exploring Its Complex Role in Identity and Indigenous Communities.
Unravelling Blood Quantum: Exploring Its Complex Role in Identity and Indigenous Communities.
In both Canada and the United States, blood quantum is a highly controversial measurement of the amount of "Indian blood" you have. More specifically, the proportion of Indigenous ancestry an individual possesses based on their genealogy or family lineage.
It is often used as a means of defining eligibility for certain benefits or rights associated with having Indigenous status, which has led to complex and often discriminatory implications.
In Canada the Blood Quantum policy was initially introduced as part of the Indian Act in 1876. Under the Indian Act, if someone had less than 50% Indigenous blood quantum (known as "half-breed" at the time), they were not considered status Indians and would lose various treaty rights including access to reserve lands and services provided by the federal government.
This policy has been understandably criticized for its role in determining who qualifies as "authentically" Indigenous based solely on genetic heritage rather than cultural affiliation or self-identification. Many argue that it is a colonial construct that does not accurately reflect cultural belonging or connection to community.
That said, many Native nations, including the Navajo Nation and the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians, for example, still use it as part of their citizenship requirements. And how tribes use blood quantum varies from tribe to tribe. The Navajo Nation requires a minimum of 25 percent "Navajo blood," and Turtle Mountain requires a minimum of 25 percent of any Indian blood, as long as it’s in combination with some Turtle Mountain.
Herein lies the Catch-22. Blood quantum minimums have restrictions to who can be a citizen of a tribe. So, if you've got 25 percent of Navajo blood — according to that tribe's blood quantum standards — and you have children with someone who has a lower blood quantum, your children won't be able to enroll.
Inevitably, the process is highly subjective, divisive, and people are going to be disenfranchised and hurt. So, why use a system that increasingly limits a tribe's membership and could lead to its demise?
So, the quantum is a fraction of blood that is derived going back to the original enrollees of a tribe who were counted on Census rolls, and then their blood quantum was documented, and usually those original enrollees had a full blood quantum. Typically. But, how did they know that those original enrollees had "full blood quantum"? They don’t.
A lot of times the people taking the Census rolls were federal government officials who were unfamiliar with Native ways of establishing and defining their own communities. And so, for example, these officials would mark someone potentially as "full blood" when potentially that person was not. And that assumption was based on their appearance, on their level of cultural involvement with their community.
One could argue that blood quantum emerged as a programmed way to, literally, breed the Indian out of existence and rid the federal government of their legal duties to uphold treaty obligations.
So, why don't tribes just ditch these blood quantum requirements and switch to an enrollment requirement that uses lineal descent? (Lineal descent basically means that, if your ancestors were enrolled in a tribe, you can be, too.) This may be one of the most important questions of the day and there are interesting opinions on either side.
Lineal descendant supporters think about high memberships through the lens of existence as a resistance right. On the other side, those who defend blood quantum requirements as a way to preserve an already existing closed community.
In Canada, the Fort William First Nation [1] decided to open enrollment to people who have no Indian ancestry at all. Meaning that those individuals don't meet the federal Canadian requirements of being a "status Indian," and they also don't have that blood quantum or decadency from an original enrollee.
The decision comes as many other Canadian First Nations work to actively limit membership, even denying it to Indigenous people who are biracial or who have non-Indigenous spouses.[2]
What’s clear is that using either blood quantum or lineal descent (as a measure of identity and eligibility for certain rights and benefits) is complex and can vary greatly depending on the specific context and circumstances.
Can a measure of blood accurately reflect cultural belonging or connection to community? Isn’t self-identification at the core of determining Indigenous identity? Should we not recognize the importance of cultural connection, community acceptance, lived experiences, and language proficiency among other factors within indigenous contexts?
In Canada, the Crown still uses blood quantum as one criterion for determining eligibility for registration as a "status Indian" under the Indian act. This classification affects access to certain rights and benefits such as healthcare services, education funding, and land use.
This has larger impacts on an individual's sense of identity and belonging within their community. Moreover, it’s also form of natural attrition that slowly reduces the number of, what are considered, “legitimate” Indians.
Many First Nations argue that external definitions like “blood quantum” is a Colonialist construct and should not be a determinant for membership or recognition within an indigenous nation because it undermines their inherent right towards self-identification (along with autonomy regarding governance structures including citizenship laws.)
What do you think? Do you think blood quantum or lineal descent is the best path forward? How do you think these matters should be understood and established? What do you think the future of First Nations peoples should look like?
Let us know in the comments.
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Image by: Critic Te Arohi.